Footnotes are notes placed at the bottom of the page, marked by a superscript number in the text; endnotes collect the same notes together at the end of a chapter or document. Both are central to note-based citation styles such as Chicago notes-bibliography and Oxford (OSCOLA-influenced) referencing, common in history, law and the humanities.
This guide explains how notes work, the difference between citation and content notes, and when to choose notes over an author-date system.
Footnotes versus endnotes
The mechanism is identical — a superscript number in the text points to a numbered note — but placement differs:
- Footnotes sit at the foot of the same page, so the reader can glance down without losing their place. Preferred where notes are frequently consulted.
- Endnotes gather at the end, keeping the page clean. Preferred for note-heavy texts where footnotes would crowd the layout.
Numbering usually runs continuously through a chapter or the whole work. The choice is often set by the publisher’s house style rather than the author.
Citation notes versus content notes
Notes do two distinct jobs, and good practice keeps them clear:
- Citation notes give the source: author, title, publication details and page. They replace the parenthetical (author, year) of author-date styles.
- Content notes add commentary, a caveat, a translation or a tangent that would interrupt the main argument if left in the body text.
A full citation note in Chicago notes-bibliography looks like this on first appearance:
1. Jane Smith, Designing the Research Question (London: Academic Press, 2020), 114.
Subsequent references to the same work are shortened:
2. Smith, Designing the Research Question, 121.
Chicago notes-bibliography and Oxford style
Chicago offers two systems: author-date (similar in spirit to Harvard referencing) and notes-bibliography, the note-based variant described here. Oxford style, widely used in UK humanities and the basis of much legal referencing, follows the same note-and-bibliography logic with its own punctuation. Both pair numbered notes with a full bibliography at the end, alphabetised by author.
| Element | First footnote | Bibliography entry |
|---|---|---|
| Author order | Forename Surname | Surname, Forename |
| Punctuation | Commas, parentheses | Full stops |
| Page | Specific page cited | Whole-work range or none |
When to use notes instead of author-date
Note-based styles suit work that:
- Cites many primary sources, archives or legal materials whose full details do not compress neatly into (author, year);
- Needs frequent discursive commentary alongside citations;
- Follows a humanities or legal house style that expects notes.
Author-date systems suit the sciences and social sciences, where the year of publication is immediately relevant and brevity in the body text is prized. For the numeric alternatives used in technical and clinical writing, see IEEE and AMA citation styles explained, and for the broader landscape, citation styles compared.
Formatting good notes
Keep superscript markers at the end of the relevant clause, after punctuation in most styles. Avoid stacking several markers on one word. Use shortened forms after the first full citation, and reserve content notes for material that genuinely cannot sit in the body. Our for authors guidance covers consistency checks before submission, and our practitioner guide to citing sources covers the underlying principles.
How notes fit the research record
Whatever the citation mechanism, the goal is an unambiguous, traceable record. Controlled terms in our dictionary and contributor roles via CRediT complement careful notes by structuring the rest of a work’s metadata. See more in research outputs.
Frequently asked questions
Should I use footnotes or endnotes?
Follow your publisher or department. Footnotes aid readers who consult notes often; endnotes keep pages uncluttered in note-heavy texts.
Do I still need a bibliography if I use footnotes?
In Chicago notes-bibliography and Oxford style, yes — the notes give running citations and the bibliography gives the full alphabetised list.
Can a footnote contain both a citation and a comment?
It can, but separating citation notes from content notes keeps the apparatus clearer. Use comments sparingly.
Are footnotes outdated?
No. They remain standard in history, law and many humanities fields where discursive commentary and primary-source citation are essential.
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