Study skills · 28 pages
Study skills & learning science
Discover evidence-based study skills, techniques, and practical examples for students. Access plain-language guides and PDFs for active recall, spaced repetition, Cornell notes, Pomodoro focus, and time management.
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All 28 study skills & learning science pages
Feynman technique
The Feynman technique is a learning method in which you study a concept and then explain it in simple terms, as though teaching a novice. Where the explanation breaks down or relies on jargon, you have found a gap; you return to the source, fill it, and simplify again. It is named after physicist Richard Feynman and rests on the idea that the ability to explain plainly demonstrates genuine understanding.
DefinitionCornell notes
Cornell notes are a note-taking method that divides the page into three areas: a wide right-hand column for notes taken during a lecture or reading, a narrow left-hand cue column for keywords and questions added afterwards, and a summary section across the bottom. The cue column later supports self-testing, while the summary consolidates the main points. The system was developed at Cornell University by Walter Pauk.
DefinitionActive recall
Active recall is a learning strategy in which you deliberately retrieve information from memory — by answering questions, using flashcards or recalling material without looking — instead of re-reading it. The effort of retrieval strengthens memory more than passive review, an effect known to learning scientists as the testing effect. It is one of the most strongly evidenced study techniques and underpins methods such as flashcards and practice testing.
DefinitionSQ3R method
SQ3R is a structured reading method designed to improve comprehension and retention of textbook material. Its name is an acronym for five steps: Survey, Question, Read, Recite and Review. By previewing the text, turning headings into questions, reading to answer them, reciting from memory and reviewing, it turns passive reading into active study. It was devised by Francis P. Robinson in the 1940s.
DefinitionSpaced repetition
Spaced repetition is a study technique in which review of material is spread out across increasing intervals of time instead of being crammed into a single session. It exploits the spacing effect — the finding that information is retained better when learning is distributed over time. Each successful review tends to lengthen the interval before the next, so well-known material is revisited less often and difficult material more often.
DefinitionMetacognition
Metacognition is awareness and control of one’s own thinking and learning — often summarised as "thinking about thinking". It has two parts: metacognitive knowledge, what you know about how you learn, and metacognitive regulation, how you plan, monitor and evaluate your learning. The term was introduced by developmental psychologist John Flavell. Strong metacognition helps learners judge what they do and do not understand and adjust their strategies accordingly.
DefinitionBloom’s taxonomy
Bloom’s taxonomy is a framework that classifies cognitive learning objectives into a hierarchy of increasing complexity. The revised 2001 version names six levels: remember, understand, apply, analyse, evaluate and create. Originally developed under Benjamin Bloom in 1956 and revised by Anderson and Krathwohl, it is widely used to write learning objectives and design assessments that target different depths of thinking, from basic recall to higher-order reasoning.
DefinitionMind mapping
A mind map is a visual diagram that organises information around a central concept, with related ideas branching outward as nodes and sub-branches. It uses keywords, colour and imagery rather than continuous prose to capture the structure of a topic at a glance. Popularised by Tony Buzan, mind mapping is used for note-taking, brainstorming and revision, and suits learners who find spatial, visual organisation helpful.
DefinitionPomodoro technique
The Pomodoro technique is a time-management method in which work is divided into focused intervals — traditionally 25 minutes, each called a "pomodoro" — separated by short breaks of around five minutes, with a longer break after four intervals. Developed by Francesco Cirillo, who named it after a tomato-shaped kitchen timer, it aims to sustain concentration, reduce distraction and make large tasks feel more manageable.
DefinitionMemory techniques
Memory techniques are deliberate strategies that improve the encoding and retrieval of information, making it easier to remember. They include mnemonics such as acronyms and rhymes, the method of loci or "memory palace", chunking information into meaningful groups, and visualisation. Most work by adding structure, meaning or vivid imagery to otherwise arbitrary material, so it connects to what you already know and is easier to retrieve later.
DefinitionInterleaving
Interleaving is a learning strategy in which different topics, skills or problem types are mixed together within a study session, instead of being practised in separate blocks. This contrasts with blocking, where one type is repeated before moving on. Although interleaving feels harder, research suggests it improves the ability to tell related concepts apart and to choose the right approach, aiding longer-term retention and transfer.
DefinitionRetrieval practice
Retrieval practice is a study strategy in which you deliberately recall information from memory — through self-testing, practice questions or recalling material on a blank page — in order to strengthen learning. The effort of retrieving makes memories more durable and accessible, a benefit known as the testing effect. Retrieval practice is essentially active recall framed as a deliberate, evidence-based strategy, and is among the most effective study techniques.
DefinitionGrowth mindset
A growth mindset is the belief that abilities such as intelligence and talent can be developed through effort, good strategies and learning from feedback. It contrasts with a fixed mindset, the belief that such abilities are largely innate and unchangeable. The concept was developed by psychologist Carol Dweck. People with a growth mindset tend to view challenges and mistakes as opportunities to improve rather than as proof of their limits.
DefinitionMnemonics
A mnemonic is a device or technique that helps you remember information by encoding it in a more memorable form, such as an acronym, acrostic, rhyme, song or vivid association. Mnemonics work by attaching otherwise arbitrary material to a pattern, meaning or image that the mind retains more easily. They are particularly useful for recalling lists, sequences, spellings and facts in a fixed order.
ComparisonActive recall vs spaced repetition
The difference is that active recall is a retrieval mechanism while spaced repetition is a timing strategy. Active recall means retrieving information from memory by testing yourself; spaced repetition means scheduling reviews at increasing intervals over time. They are not alternatives but partners — used together as "spaced retrieval practice", you retrieve material (active recall) at the optimal moments (spaced repetition), which is more effective than either alone.
GuideHow to study effectively
To study effectively, replace passive review with evidence-based techniques: test yourself to retrieve information from memory (active recall), space your reviews over time (spaced repetition), mix related topics (interleaving), and explain ideas in your own words (the Feynman technique). These methods feel harder than re-reading but produce stronger, longer-lasting learning. Managing time and attention, with tools such as the Pomodoro technique, supports the process.
DefinitionTime Management Techniques
Time management techniques are structured methods used to allocate hours effectively. Popular techniques include the Pomodoro Technique (cycling focused study with rest), the Eisenhower Matrix (categorising tasks by urgency and importance), and Time Blocking (allocating specific calendar segments to single tasks). Grounded in cognitive science, these methods help overcome procrastination and manage workloads.
DefinitionTime Management
Time management is a set of skills and frameworks designed to help individuals allocate their time effectively. Grounded in cognitive and learning science, good time management reduces academic stress, limits procrastination, and increases focus. Key strategies include prioritisation (using the Eisenhower Matrix), planning (through time blocking and task batching), and managing focus (using interval systems like the Pomodoro Technique).
DefinitionEvidence-based study tips
The most effective study tips are based on cognitive science: 1. Use active recall (self-quizzing rather than passive reading), 2. Use spaced repetition (spacing study sessions over days or weeks), 3. Practice interleaving (mixing up different topics in one session), and 4. Optimise your study environment (removing phone distractions). These methods outperform passive highlighting.
DefinitionEvidence-based test-taking strategies
Test-taking strategies are evidence-based methods designed to maximise exam performance by managing time, reducing cognitive load, and systematically addressing questions. Key strategies include question triage (answering easy questions first to build momentum), active reading of prompts, process of elimination for multiple-choice options, and managing physiological anxiety through breathing exercises. Grounded in cognitive psychology, these techniques help ensure that a student's score reflects their actual knowledge rather than test-taking friction.
DefinitionCognitive learning theory
Cognitive learning theory explains how the mind acquires, processes, stores, and applies knowledge. Unlike behaviourism, which focuses only on observable actions, cognitive approaches focus on internal mental processes: attention, memory, perception, problem-solving and language. Key theorists include Jean Piaget (schema theory), Lev Vygotsky (social constructivism) and Jerome Bruner (discovery learning).
DefinitionLearning theories
Learning theories are systematic frameworks that explain how people acquire and retain knowledge. The major schools are behaviourism (Pavlov, Skinner — stimulus-response conditioning), cognitivism (Piaget, Bruner — internal mental processing), constructivism (Vygotsky, Dewey — knowledge built through experience), humanism (Maslow, Rogers — self-actualisation and intrinsic motivation) and connectivism (Siemens, 2004 — networked digital learning).
DefinitionZone of proximal development (ZPD)
The zone of proximal development (ZPD), introduced by Lev Vygotsky in 1931, is the range of tasks a learner cannot yet perform alone but can achieve with guidance from a more capable peer or teacher. It represents the gap between current ability and potential ability under scaffolded support.
DefinitionScaffolding in education
Scaffolding in education is temporary instructional support that enables learners to accomplish tasks beyond their current independent level. The term was coined by Wood, Bruner and Ross (1976), drawing on Vygotsky's zone of proximal development. Support is structured, adjustable and gradually removed as the learner's competence grows, following the gradual release of responsibility model.
DefinitionSocial learning theory
Social learning theory, developed by Albert Bandura (1963, 1977), holds that learning occurs through observation, imitation and modelling — not only through direct reinforcement as behaviourism proposed. Four processes underpin observational learning: attention, retention, reproduction and motivation. Bandura's 1961 Bobo doll experiment demonstrated that children learn aggressive behaviours by watching a model, without being directly reinforced.
DefinitionMultiple intelligences (Gardner)
Howard Gardner (Frames of Mind, 1983) proposed that intelligence is not a single general factor but a set of distinct modalities. His original seven were: linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, spatial, bodily-kinaesthetic, interpersonal and intrapersonal. He later added naturalistic (1995) and tentatively existential (2011). The theory is influential in education but is criticised by psychologists for lacking rigorous empirical support as a model of "intelligences" rather than talents or strengths.
DefinitionConstructivism in education
Constructivism holds that learners actively build knowledge through experience rather than passively receiving it. Cognitive constructivism (Piaget) emphasises individual mental construction through assimilation and accommodation. Social constructivism (Vygotsky) holds that knowledge is co-constructed through social interaction. Instructional approaches include problem-based learning, inquiry-based learning and collaborative learning.
DefinitionBehaviourism
Behaviourism holds that behaviour is shaped entirely by environmental stimuli and consequences, not internal mental states. Classical conditioning (Pavlov, 1897; Watson, 1913) associates neutral stimuli with reflex responses. Operant conditioning (Thorndike's law of effect; Skinner) shapes behaviour through reinforcement and punishment. In education, behaviourist principles underpin reward systems, drill-and-practice and direct instruction.
