Citation & referencing · 24 pages
Citation & referencing
Practical, standards-grounded guidance on citing sources correctly across the major styles. Each page gives the general format then a worked example in APA 7th edition, MLA 9th edition and Chicago 17th edition (notes–bibliography), plus the core concepts — et al., works-cited lists, multiple authors — that hold every reference together.
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Et al.
"Et al." is short for the Latin et alia, meaning "and others". In citations it replaces the names of co-authors after the first, so a long author list can be shortened. APA 7th uses "et al." for any source with three or more authors; MLA 9th uses it for three or more. Note the full stop: et (no point) al. (with point).
DefinitionWorks Cited
A "Works Cited" list is the MLA name for the list of sources you have actually cited in your text, gathered at the end of the paper. It is alphabetised by author surname, double-spaced, and uses a hanging indent. It differs from an APA "References" list (same idea, APA formatting) and from a "Bibliography", which may include works consulted but not cited.
How-toHow to cite a book
To cite a book, gather the author, full title (and subtitle), edition if not the first, publisher and year of publication — usually found on the title page and copyright page. APA 7th lists author, year, italicised title and publisher; MLA 9th lists author, italicised title, publisher and year; Chicago 17th formats a note and a bibliography entry.
How-toHow to cite a journal article
To cite a journal article, record the author, article title, journal title, volume, issue, page range, year and DOI. APA 7th and MLA 9th present the DOI as a full https://doi.org/ URL; Chicago does too. The journal title is italicised; the article title is in quotation marks (MLA, Chicago) or sentence case without quotes (APA).
How-toHow to cite an image
To cite an image, record the creator, a title (or a description if untitled), the date, the format or medium, and the location — a website and URL, a museum and city, or the source it was reproduced in. APA 7th treats it as a figure with a format note; MLA 9th and Chicago 17th give creator, title, date and host.
How-toHow to cite a film
To cite a film, record the title, the director (and other key contributors), the production or distribution company, and the year of release. APA 7th puts the director in the author position with a "Director" label; MLA 9th can lead with the title or a contributor; Chicago 17th names the title, director and studio, adding the medium where relevant.
How-toHow to cite a YouTube video
To cite a YouTube video, record the person or organisation that uploaded it, the video title, the channel name, the date it was posted, and the full URL. APA 7th uses the uploader as author and italicises the title; MLA 9th uses YouTube as a container; Chicago 17th gives the uploader, title, length and posting date.
How-toHow to cite a quote
To cite a direct quote, reproduce the wording exactly, enclose short quotations in quotation marks, and add an in-text citation with a page number. APA 7th uses (Author, Year, p. X); MLA 9th uses (Author Page); Chicago 17th uses a footnote with the page. Quotations of 40+ words (APA) or four+ lines (MLA) become indented block quotes without quotation marks.
How-toHow to cite a PDF
A PDF is a file format, not a kind of source, so cite the document according to what it is — a report, journal article, book or working paper — and add the format or URL where helpful. Identify the genuine source type, gather its metadata, then follow the matching APA 7th, MLA 9th or Chicago 17th template, noting "PDF" only when it aids retrieval.
How-toHow to cite a lecture or PowerPoint
To cite lecture slides or a PowerPoint, record the speaker or author, the title of the slides or lecture, the date, the format, and where it was delivered or hosted (a course platform, a website, or a named event). APA 7th adds a "[PowerPoint slides]" descriptor; MLA 9th and Chicago 17th name the event or platform and date.
How-toHow to cite a podcast
To cite a podcast, record the host or producer, the episode title, the series title, the publisher or network, the date, and the URL. APA 7th puts the host in the author position with a "Host" label and adds an "[Audio podcast episode]" descriptor; MLA 9th and Chicago 17th name the episode, the series and the date.
How-toHow to cite an interview
How you cite an interview depends on its type. A personal interview you conducted is cited in the text only in APA (as personal communication), but gets a full entry in MLA and Chicago. A published or broadcast interview is cited like the source that carries it — an article, video or podcast — in every style. Identify the type first, then apply the matching template.
How-toHow to cite multiple authors
How you cite multiple authors depends on the number and the style. APA 7th names one or two authors every time, but uses "first author et al." for three or more in the text, while the reference list shows up to 20. MLA 9th names one or two authors, and uses "first author et al." for three or more in both the text and Works Cited.
How-toHow to cite a book chapter
To cite a chapter in an edited book, give the chapter author and chapter title, then the book editors, book title, the chapter’s page range, and the publisher and year. APA 7th uses "In Editor (Ed.), Book title (pp. xx–xx)"; MLA 9th treats the book as the container; Chicago 17th names the chapter then the edited book.
How-toHow to cite a newspaper article
To cite a newspaper article, record the author, the headline, the newspaper title, the full date, and the page number for print or the URL for online. APA 7th italicises the newspaper title and gives the full date; MLA 9th treats the newspaper as a container; Chicago 17th names the author, headline, newspaper and date.
How-toHow to cite a dictionary or encyclopedia
To cite a dictionary or encyclopedia entry, record the entry term (the headword), the title of the reference work, the author or publisher, the edition or year, and the URL for an online entry. APA 7th names the publisher as author for continuously updated works and adds a retrieval date; MLA 9th and Chicago 17th name the entry, the work and the date.
How-toHow to cite a website
To cite a web page, record the author or organisation, the page title, the site name, the publication or last-updated date and the URL. APA 7th adds a retrieval date only for content likely to change; MLA 9th treats the site as a container; Chicago 17th gives the author, title, site, date and URL. When an element is missing, use the agreed substitute.
How-toHow to cite a video
To cite an online or streaming video, record the uploader or main contributor, the title, the platform or site, the date posted and the URL. APA 7th puts the uploader in the author position and adds a "[Video]" descriptor; MLA 9th treats the platform as a container; Chicago 17th names the contributor, title, medium, date and URL.
How-toHow to cite a song
To cite a song, record the recording artist, the track title, the album, the record label, the year of release and, for streamed music, the platform. APA 7th puts the artist in the author position and adds a "[Song]" descriptor; MLA 9th treats the album or platform as a container; Chicago 17th names the artist, track, album, label and medium.
How-toHow to cite a thesis or dissertation
How you cite a thesis depends on where you found it. An unpublished thesis names the awarding institution as the source; one accessed through a database or repository is treated as published, naming the database and any publication number. Record the author, year, title, degree type and institution, then apply the matching APA 7th, MLA 9th or Chicago 17th template.
How-toHow to cite a speech
To cite a speech, record the speaker, the title of the address, the event or occasion, the venue and city, and the date. How you cite it depends on the form: a live speech names the event and location; a transcript or recording is cited like the source that carries it. Apply the matching APA 7th, MLA 9th or Chicago 17th template.
How-toHow to cite a report
To cite a government or organisation report, record the issuing organisation as author, the title, any report or publication number, the publisher and the URL. APA 7th puts the report number in parentheses and omits the publisher when it matches the author; MLA 9th treats the organisation as author and container; Chicago 17th names the organisation, title, publisher and date.
How-toHow to cite social media
To cite a social-media post on X, Facebook or Instagram, record the author’s name and handle, the post text (up to the first 20 words in APA, the full short post in MLA), the platform, the date and the URL. APA 7th adds a content descriptor such as "[Post]"; MLA 9th and Chicago 17th give the handle, text, date and link.
How-toHow to cite a source with no author
When a source has no author, move the title to the author position in the reference entry and alphabetise by the title’s first significant word, ignoring "A", "An" or "The". In the text, use a shortened form of the title in place of the author. In APA, a corporate or organisation author may stand in before you treat the work as truly authorless.
