Direct comparison
Retraction vs Erratum vs Corrigendum vs EoC
Retraction, erratum, corrigendum and expression of concern each mean something different. A COPE- and NISO-based table shows which applies, and why.
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How do Retraction, Erratum, Corrigendum, Expression of Concern compare side by side?
The table below compares Retraction, Erratum, Corrigendum, Expression of Concern across 7 procurement-relevant dimensions, from what it addresses through typical resolution timeline.
Side-by-side comparison
| Dimension | Retraction | Erratum | Corrigendum | Expression of Concern |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| What it addresses | A problem so serious the paper's conclusions can no longer be relied on | A publisher-introduced production error (typesetting, figure reproduction, formatting) | An author-introduced error in their own submitted work that doesn't undermine conclusions | A credible but not-yet-resolved concern, pending investigation or evidence |
| Who typically caused the problem | Authors (fabrication, falsification, plagiarism, unethical research) or serious honest error | The publisher/production process | The authors | Unclear or under investigation — that is exactly why the notice exists |
| Severity — effect on the paper's conclusions | Conclusions are no longer considered reliable | None — conclusions are unaffected | None — conclusions remain valid once the error is fixed | Unknown until the underlying investigation concludes |
| Does the original stay available? | Yes — stays online, prominently marked ‘RETRACTED’, not deleted | Yes — remains the version of record, correction linked to it | Yes — remains the version of record, correction linked to it | Yes — stays available with the expression of concern notice attached |
| How it's marked/indexed (Crossref, PubMed) | ‘RETRACTED:’ prepended to title, watermarked, PubMed ‘Retracted Publication’ label, bidirectional Crossref link | Correction notice bidirectionally linked to original via Crossref/CrossMark | Correction notice bidirectionally linked to original via Crossref/CrossMark | Distinct linked notice per NISO CREC, flagged but not marked as retracted |
| Who can initiate it | Editor, publisher, institution, or the authors — often after a formal investigation | Usually the publisher/production team | Usually the authors | The editor, once a credible concern is raised but before it is resolved |
| Typical resolution timeline | Weeks to years, often tied to an institutional investigation | Days to weeks once the error is confirmed | Days to weeks once the error is confirmed | Highly variable — can remain open for years pending an external investigation |
Common questions
Common questions about Retraction vs Erratum vs Corrigendum vs Expression of Concern
What is a retraction, exactly?
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A retraction is a formal notice that withdraws a published paper's findings from the reliable scientific record because something fundamental about the work is unsound — fabricated or falsified data, plagiarism, duplicate publication, or an honest error serious enough to invalidate the main conclusions. The article stays online but is permanently marked as retracted; it is not deleted.
What's the real difference between an erratum and a corrigendum?
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By convention, a corrigendum corrects an error the authors introduced in their own submitted work, while an erratum corrects a production-side error the publisher introduced. In practice many journals use the two terms interchangeably or collapse both into a single generic ‘correction’ notice, so always read the notice itself rather than assuming from the label alone.
Does a retraction mean the authors committed misconduct?
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No. A retraction is a statement about whether a paper’s findings can still be relied on, not automatically a finding of misconduct. A substantial share of retractions stem from honest error with no fraud involved, and COPE guidance directs retraction notices to attribute responsibility fairly, including exonerating authors when that is the case.
What is the Retraction Watch Database and how is it different from Crossref?
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The Retraction Watch Database is a structured, searchable retraction index maintained by the Center for Scientific Integrity. In 2023 Crossref took over its stewardship and began integrating its records into Crossref's own metadata, combining Crossref's roughly 14,000 publisher-submitted retraction records with the database's roughly 43,000 into an openly available combined dataset of around 50,000. The two organizations remain separate; Retraction Watch continues independent reporting alongside the integration.
Why do some expressions of concern stay open for years?
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Resolving an expression of concern usually depends on an external process — an institutional research-integrity investigation, a co-author or funder response — completing on its own timeline, which a journal generally cannot compel or accelerate. Until that process concludes, the notice remains open.
Should I stop citing a paper that has an erratum or corrigendum?
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No. An erratum or corrigendum means the paper’s conclusions remain valid once the specific error is accounted for, so it can still be cited as evidence — just read the correction alongside the original. A retraction is the signal to stop relying on a paper’s findings as valid evidence.
Going deeper
