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Short answer
Graphene is a single atomic layer of carbon, and it is used mainly where very fast electron movement matters: small electronic devices such as transistors and sensors, and metrology, where it underpins a quantum Hall resistance standard. The biggest problem industry reports is not the material itself but the lack of standardised materials, processes and characterisation methods.
Definition and scope
NIST describes graphene as a single atomic layer of carbon with the thickness of a single carbon atom. The National Physical Laboratory (NPL) calls it the two-dimensional crystal of carbon, with many extraordinary properties that are either unique or surpass those of other materials. In a laboratory context, “graphene material” therefore means a measurable physical object, not a marketing label: its identity depends on how it was made, how it was characterised and what flake size, surface chemistry and defect level it has. It sits inside the wider field covered in What Is Nanotechnology?
What is graphene used for?
The two best-documented uses in primary sources come from national measurement institutes.
Electronics and sensors
NIST reports that electrons in graphene move approximately 100 times faster than in the silicon used in almost all modern electronic devices. That makes it suited to small electronic devices such as transistors or sensors. NIST also notes that graphene can be patterned using standard semiconductor lithography techniques and can serve as both the active element and the wiring of a device. NIST measures such devices with custom scanning probe microscopes cooled to 4 K; the active graphene area may be as small as tens of micrometres in length.
Metrology and resistance standards
NPL describes a graphene-based quantum Hall resistance standard as part of the Graphene Flagship. Its Table Top Quantum Hall (TTQH) device is intended for compact, cryogen-free, automated resistance calibration. This is a use a calibration laboratory can recognise: graphene as the reference element inside an instrument. For the wider calibration concepts behind it, see What Is Calibration? and Calibration Certificates and Metrological Traceability.
Materials characterisation case studies
NPL also lists case studies on quality control of 2D-material liquid dispersions, non-destructive testing and the mechanical properties of nanocomposites, which shows where measurement work is currently concentrated. Related instruments are covered in Atomic Force Microscopy: Imaging Modes Compared and Raman vs FTIR Spectroscopy.
Why graphene quality is hard to specify
The Graphene Flagship gives a polymer-composite example: flake size, surface functionalisation and lattice defects all affect performance. Two samples both sold as graphene can therefore behave differently. NPL addresses this with Good Practice Guide GPG145, which covers characterisation of graphene structure, produced with the University of Manchester National Graphene Institute. The Flagship’s standardisation work focuses on morphological, structural and chemical characterisation, sample preparation, data analysis, classification, and electrical and optical properties.
What is the biggest problem with graphene?
According to the Graphene Flagship, industry cites a lack of standardised materials, processes and characterisation methods as slowing innovation. NPL makes the same point: standardisation is extremely important for the commercialisation of any emerging technology, and metrology is a key enabler for commercialising graphene. The Flagship names ISO, IEC, CEN, the OECD expert working group on graphene-family materials and VAMAS interlaboratory round-robins as the bodies and mechanisms working towards consensus-based international standards for graphene and related materials.
Checklist: what to establish about any graphene material
This checklist is built only from the variables the sources above name. It is a way to frame a question to a supplier or collaborator, not a purchasing rule.
| Question | Why it matters (source) |
|---|---|
| What is the flake size? | Named by the Graphene Flagship as affecting composite performance. |
| What is the surface functionalisation? | Named by the Graphene Flagship as affecting composite performance. |
| What lattice defects are present? | Named by the Graphene Flagship as affecting composite performance. |
| How was the structure characterised, and by which method? | Structure characterisation is the subject of NPL’s GPG145 and a Flagship standardisation focus. |
| For dispersions, how was quality controlled? | NPL lists quality control of 2D-material liquid dispersions as a case study. |
Handling matters too: nanomaterials have their own laboratory hazards, summarised in Nanomaterial Safety in the Research Laboratory.
Common misunderstandings
- “Graphene” is not one uniform product. Flake size, functionalisation and defects vary, and the Flagship says standardised materials and characterisation methods are still lacking.
- Fast electrons do not make every device better. NIST frames graphene as suited to small devices such as transistors and sensors, not as a general replacement for other materials.
- Single layer means one atom thick. NIST’s definition is a single atomic layer of carbon, the thickness of a single carbon atom.
FAQ
What is graphene?
A single atomic layer of carbon, the two-dimensional crystal of carbon, according to NIST and NPL.
What is graphene used for?
Documented uses include transistors and sensors (NIST) and a quantum Hall resistance standard for resistance calibration (NPL), alongside measurement work on dispersions and nanocomposites.
What is the biggest problem with graphene?
The Graphene Flagship reports that industry cites a lack of standardised materials, processes and characterisation methods as slowing innovation.
Is graphene faster than silicon?
NIST states that electrons move approximately 100 times faster in graphene than in the silicon used in almost all modern electronic devices.
Sources
- NIST, Graphene program page: https://www.nist.gov/programs-projects/graphene (checked 2026-10-29).
- National Physical Laboratory, Graphene: https://www.npl.co.uk/graphene (checked 2026-10-29).
- Graphene Flagship, Standardisation: https://graphene-flagship.eu/industrialisation/standardisation/ (checked 2026-10-29).
